he soccer / futbol / 2 or soccer / sɔkœ ː ʀ / (in North America ) is a team sport involving two teams of eleven players in a stadium . The goal of each training is to put a balloon ball in the goal opposite, without using the arms, and do it more often than the other team.
Codified by the British in the late xix th century, football was endowed in 1904 of an international federation, the FIFA . Performed in 2006 by about 264 million players worldwide, football’s status as number one sport in most countries. Some continents, like Africa , the South America and Europe , are almost entirely dominated by the same discipline. The simplicity of the game and the limited resources necessary for its practice partly explain this success.
The calendar is dominated by two types of tests: those for clubs and those of national teams . The World Cup is the most prestigious international event. It takes place every four years since 1930 . For clubs, national championships and other cuts are planned competitions. The Champions League UEFA , is played in Europe but which has equivalents in other continents, is the most coveted trophy in the sport, despite the recent establishment of a World Cup for clubs , yet in search of legitimacy.
Sets the ball there since ancient times. These are games, not sports. The Greeks know so many ball games can be practiced with the feet: aporrhaxis and phéninde to Athens and épiscyre to Sparta 3 . The situation is similar in Romans where we practice the pila paganica , the pila trigonalis , the follis and Harpastum 4 . The Chinese also perform exercises with a ball they use to juggle and make passes, an activity practiced without goals and without any competition is for the physical maintenance of the military (蹴鞠, cuju ). The first texts on Cuju date from the end of the iii th century BC. AD and are considered the oldest texts related to the Chinese sports 5 . At the end of the xv th century , the Florentine calcio appears in Italy . This is a distant cousin of football, which disappears completely in 1739 6 .
Soule in Normandy in 1852
Soccer has its roots in the real soule (or shul) medieval . This game is played sports in schools and universities but also by the people on both sides of the Channel . The first written mention of the soule in France dates back to 1147 7 and the equivalent English date of 1174 8 . From the xvi th century , the inflated leather ball is common in France 8 . Long prohibited for military reasons in England 9 or economic productivity in France 10 , the soule, despite its brutality, remains popular until the beginning of xix th century in the British Isles and in a large north-western France. The game is also practiced by the settlers of North America and it is forbidden by the authorities of the city of Boston in 1657 11 . Named Soccer in English , the soule is renamed folk soccer (football people) by the English historians of the sport in order to distinguish the modern game 12 . This activity is indeed mainly practiced by the common people as reported by a former student of Eton in his Reminiscences of Eton ( 1831 ): I cannot Consider the game of automobile insurance soccer ace Being gentlemany, After All, the Yorkshire common people play it 13 . (“I can not consider football as a sport of gentlemen, after all the little people of Yorkshire plays.”)
The Highway Act UK 1835 banning the practice of folk soccer on roads 13 forced him to withdraw into enclosed spaces. Variants of the soule already take place, long, closed on land 14 . That, on school grounds of Eton , Harrow , Charterhouse, Rugby , Shrewsbury , Westminster and Winchester , in particular, that germ modern football. The first game codes writings date from the middle of the xix th century ( 1848 to Cambridge 15 ). Each team has its own rules, making the matches problem. The English FA ( Football Association ) was founded in 1863 . Its first objective is to unify the regulations.
The British example
Main article: Debut of football .
Aston Villa in 1899
The British codify and organize football, drawing on examples of cricket and baseball , both sports are already structured before the emergence of football. Professional league championships and other cuts, football does not innovate. The first club -school was founded in 1857 : the Sheffield Football Club . The argument Sheffield FC’s first match against the interclub Hallam FC (founded 1860 ) on 26 December 1860 against sixteen to sixteen 16 . Both clubs find themselves pioneers in December 1862 for the first charity match 16 . The Youdan Cup is the first competition. She stands in 1867 at Sheffield Hallam FC and won the trophy 5 March 17 . The first test of a national character is the FA Challenge Cup 1872 . The professionalism is authorized in 1885 and the first championship is played in 1888-1889 . The Football Association takes a leading role in this evolution, including imposing a single regulation by creating the FA Cup , then the clubs are gaining ascendancy 18 . The creation of the Championship ( League ) is not the fact of the Federation but an initiative of clubs seeking to present a stable and consistent schedule. The existence of a rail network makes possible the evolution driven by William McGregor , chairman of Aston Villa 19 . This is the first professional championship, and no club South of the country does not participate.
The England is then cut in two: the North fully accepting professionalism and dismissing the South. This difference of social explanations. Southern England is dominated by the classical spirit of sports clubs reserved for a social elite. In the north dominated by industry, professional football is run by pundits did not hesitate to pay their players to strengthen their team, the same way they recruit the best engineers to strengthen their businesses 20 . For five seasons, the championship is restricted to the northern clubs. The London club of Arsenal turned professional in 1891 21 . League of London while its competition excludes the Gunners of Arsenal 22 who join the League in 1893 . The Southern League was formed in reaction ( 1894 ) 23 . This competition is gradually opening to professionalism but can not prevent the departure of many clubs to the League . Still the best clubs in Southern League are incorporated into the League in 1920 24 .
Final of the FA Cup 1905
About the game, passing the dribbling game in passing game is an important development. Originally, football is very individualistic players, all forwards, run towards the goal with the ball, that is to say, by linking the dribbles. This is the dribbling . As Michel Platini likes to recall, “the ball will run faster than the player.” It is on this simple principle which is built the passing game . This innovation appears in the late 1860s and is needed in the year 1880 . By the late 1860s, matches between London and Sheffield have introduced the passing to the north 25 . This is the version of Charles Alcock , who is in 1883 the first real demonstration of passing to London by Blackburn Olympic . Between these two dates, the new way to play finds refuge in Scotland 26 .
Modeled on the Football Association , the national federations are based in Scotland ( 1873 ) 27 , in Wales ( 1876 ) 28 and in Ireland ( 1880 ) 29 . Events between the selections of the best players of these federations have held from the 30 November 1872 ( Scotland – England ), a few months before the official founding of the Scottish 30 . Of annual matches are struggling these various selections, and from 1884 , these friendly matches turn into a first international competition: the British Home Championship . By practicing passing rather than dribbling , the Scots dominated the first editions 31 .
International Football
Main article: Football in the get your ex back world .
Football game at the stadium BMO Field in Toronto in Canada .
Unlike sports “noble” as the cricket , the tennis , the hockey and rugby , football is not very developed in the sports clubs located in the British Empire . Thus, this discipline is still somewhat popular in India , in Pakistan , in North America or Australia , among others. In South Africa , the British colonists to import tria laser hair removal reviews from football in 1869 32 and then a section of Natal is organized as 1884 33 , but football, sport king in townships 34 , is still very misunderstood by the white supporters of apartheid who prefer the rugby, tennis and cricket. Football was, indeed, pointed to denounce apartheid and from the 9 April 1973 , a team combining black and white players representing South Africa at an international match, unofficial face of Rhodesia 35 .
The British nevertheless play an important role in the dissemination of football, thanks to the workers sent around the world to complete sites. Football is for example introduced into South America by the workers on construction sites of railway lines. They ride teams and set up competitions initially available only to British players, and gradually open to players and local clubs. The South American case is complex. There are also British clubs who practice this discipline and students originating from England play an important role in the introduction of football between Montevideo and Buenos Aires 36 . Thus, football settled permanently in nations such as Uruguay or Argentina since the year 1870 – 80 . In North America , the competitions are created in the year 1 880 ( 1 884 to U.S. East Coast) 37 .
Football match in Belgium ( Royal Excelsior Mouscron – Standard Liege )
The Belgium , where the English universities play a role 38 , the Netherlands (first club founded in 1879 38 ), the Swiss (introduction of football since the 1860s and the first club in 1879 39 ) and Denmark (the first club in 1876 40 ) are among the first countries of continental Europe hit by football.
The expansion of football is also due to travelers of various nationalities have made visits to the UK where they were introduced to the game in France , the introduction of football is so mainly by the action of Teachers of English who bring their trips across the Channel linguistic rules and balloons in the school grounds 41 . The British are also instrumental in the introduction of football in France. The action of the British clubs of Paris White-Rovers and Standard AC bends the Union of French Societies of chiropractic seminars Athletic Sports (USFSA) on 9 January 1894 , which, in line with British clubs stilted, feared an expansion of football and its vices, such as professionalism, transfers and paris and refused to recognize the discipline 42 . In Germany , football is first clearly perceived as a foreign body in the nation and is scornfully nicknamed the “sport of English” by the Nationalists 43 . However, football is rooted in the cities (the first club founded in 1887 : SC Germania Hamburg) where white-collar workers and rally around a common passion 43 . The Northern Europe is gradually contaminated between the 1870s and early 1890s , then the Southern Europe (Southern France included) suffered the same fate in the 1890s and early xx th century .
Amateur football match at Rodez ( France )
The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris in 1904 despite British refusal to participate in an enterprise initiated by the French leaders of the USFSA 44 . The primary purpose Medical Billing of the Union is to silence the other French sports federations practicing football, and it imposes in the founding of the federation by FIFA only nation to be recognized by the international body. The trap turns against the USFSA in 1908 . Union slams the door of FIFA, leaving its main competitor, the French Committee Interfederal (direct ancestor of today’s French Football Federation ), headquartered in FIFA 45 , the USFSA become isolated but its state mind against the professionalism remains the rule until the late 1920s . The racingman Frantz Reichel and prophesy in 1922 that “the English professional football will die if it remains stationed on British soil 46 ” .
In the late 1920s and early 1930s , several European nations and South America allow professionalism to end the scandal of amateurism brown affecting these countries since the 1910s . The French international goalkeeper Peter Chayrigues lift kit refuses and a cna training “golden bridge” the English club Tottenham Hotspur in 1913 , he admitted in his memoirs that players of Red Star were well paid despite their official status of amateur 47 . The Austria ( 1924 ), the Czechoslovakia and Hungary (before 1930 ), the Spanish ( 1929 ), the Argentine ( 1931 ), the France ( 1932 ) and Brazil ( 1933 ) are the first nations (outside the United Kingdom ) to allow professionalism in football 48 . In Italy , the Carta di Viareggio , set up by the fascist regime in 1926 , the transition between amateur and professional status, finally adopted in 1946 49 .
T
At the continental level, confederations manage football. The first set is the confederation of South America, the CONMEBOL , based on 9 July 1916 . Under the hierarchical authority of FIFA , confederations shall, however, maintain their independence. They all liberties, for example, to organize at their convenience Qualifications for World Cup and to establish specific timetables, despite attempts to harmonize without reaching the FIFA . Cases African and South American countries are significant. The African Cup of Nations (CAN), for example, is held every two years in high season causing problems for European clubs employing African players. FIFA has no authority to set these calendars, and only the Confederation of African control this issue.
According to a count released by FIFA on 31 May 2007 1 , football is practiced worldwide by 270 million people with players 264.5 million (239.5 million men and 26 million women). There are approximately 301,000 to 1.7 million clubs and 840,000 teams referees. 113 000 players play in professional status. The latter figure is to be handled with care because there are considerable differences among nations about the definition of a professional player. Germany is thus absent from the rankings of the top twenty nations at this level while other nations, less strict in the definition of professional status, advance data artificially high.
At the level of nations, China is leading with 26,166,000 players practitioners. Behind China, are the United States (24473000), the India (20.588), the Germany (16.309), the Brazil (13.198), the Mexico (8.480), the Indonesia (7.094), the Nigeria (6.654), the Bangladesh (6.280), the Russia (5.803), the Italy (4.980), the Japanese (4.805), the South Africa (4.540), the France (4.190) and England (4.164) . These figures include the licensed and unlicensed practitioners. On licensed players, the table below presents the data of the twelve national federations with the most registered players. Note that after participation in the final of the 2006 World Cup of the France team , the number of registered players has surpassed 2 million in France (2020634) 50 .
Licensed players (in thousands, men and women in a st July 2006 )
Settlement
Menarche
The first game code date of 1848 : the Cambridge Rules 15 . Other universities are following the lead of Cambridge and enact their own regulations. Harrow and puts in place a Code authorizing the use of hands that will give birth to rugby and its variations, such as American football and Canadian football . Football is based exclusively on the Cambridge rules, which stand out as the simplest. This notion of simplicity is the founder of football itself, as is clear from the subtitle of the rules of JC Thring which refine the settlement of Cambridge in 1862 : The Simplest Game 51 (The simplest game).
England – Scotland in 1872
When the Football Association (FA) is founded in London on 26 October 1863 , John D. Cartwright is responsible for synthesis of different rules in use ( RC Blackheath who followed the rules of Harrow, was a member of the FA) 52 . On 9 January 1864 53 , the first game played under its new 14 laws of the game is played 54 . They are pretty vague, especially in the areas of number of players and field dimensions or goals because an agreement could not be found on these points. The teams are then thirteen to fifteen players to eleven and then move gradually, despite the resistance of many teams in the late 1860s . In 1867 , when the Surrey FA offers a game eleven against eleven at Cambridge University FC, he replies by mail: “we play at least fifteen per team and we can not play with less than thirteen players per team 55 ” . Law 11 states that the use of hands is prohibited. In fact, this is broadly the resumption of Cambridge Rules and rules of JC Thring, hailed by all as the simplest 56 .
The 1 st December 1863, the Sheffield FC request for affiliation to the FA 56 . Clubs Sheffield then follow a code particular game but near Cambridge Rules and is played eleven against eleven 16 . For over a decade, the two codes coexist and influence each other while some clubs enact internal regulations stipulating that only their internal regulation is applicable. This very heterogeneous does not prevent the FA to refine its rules. The position of goalkeeper is well established in 1870 55 . Similarly, between 1867 and 1870, the rules of Sheffield experiencing some changes as the abandonment in 1868 of red 57 (dots similar to Australian football , with two additional poles located 4 yards goals). The clubs in the area of Nottingham , who had also inspired a settlement of Cambridge Rules , adopt the rules of the FA in 1867 58 .
The FA Cup was founded in 1871 on the principle “a cup, two codes 59 . ” The hope is to push the FA Sheffield clubs to adopt its rules. It’s almost the opposite occurs. In fact, the two codes merge in 1877 60 . Since then, the rules are then unified in the custody of the International Board , established on 6 December 1882 .
Principles of the game
Football pits two teams of eleven players on a rectangular field 90 to 120 meters long and 45-90 meters wide. For international matches, the field dimensions are reduced between 64 to 75 meters wide and 100 to 110 meters long. The objective is to penetrate a balloon ball from 68 to 70 cm in circumference and weighs 410 to 450 grams in a goal along 7.32 m of 2.44 m in height. The goal is considered scored when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line drawn on the ground between two poles.
Goalkeeper
The only player allowed to use his hands is the goalkeeper in his penalty area. In this same area, usually a foul punishable by a direct free kick is a kick repair (penalty). It runs on a point 11 meters from the goal line. In addition to the faults of hands, the other faults are mainly unsporting behavior and contact between players. The tackle is allowed, but regulated. A tackle from behind and is punished with a red card means expulsion. In less serious cases of misconduct, a yellow card may be given by the referee to the offending player. If that player was handed a second yellow card during the same game, he was expelled.
The rule of offside power forwards do not simply wait for the balls behind the defense. For a player is involved, there must always have at least two players (usually the goalie and one defender) between him and the opponent’s goal line. The assistant referee signals with an offside flag that initially judge the ball, that is to say when the smuggler made his pass, and not the arrival of the ball at the feet of the attacker.
The game lasts 90 minutes, two halves of 45 minutes with a break of fifteen minutes. At some cup matches before a winner or a qualified (you can qualify away matches without necessarily win the rematch), an extension of two times fifteen minutes is played. After this period, in case of a tie, penalty kicks decide between the two formations.
Laws of the Game
Main article: Laws of the Game .
Football has seventeen “laws of the game” governed by the International Board . Regulation is the same for professionals and amateurs, senior or youth. FIFA ensures the uniform application of the same laws of the game worldwide.
The 17 Laws of the Game:
Trio Mixed Arbitral
In the field, the application of the regulation is entrusted to a body of arbitration, which sets up permanently in 1891 65 . Evoked a time, twice arbitration was in use early in the game and a third arbitrator, located in the stands, took the decision in case of conflict between the two main referees. This system is ineffective and in 1891, the referee , once placed in the stand, is now positioned on the ground, while the doublet of arbitrators ( umpires ) is on the banks of key ( linesmen ). The referee quickly with broad authority to direct the full pop up display game. Before these reforms, the penalties do not exist and the referee did not control the playing time since 1874 , the umpires can whistle kicks and expelling players. Before that date, evictions are discussed with the captains 66 . The yellow and red cards were introduced in 1970 following an incident during the match of World Cup England – Argentina in 1966 . Expelled, the Argentine captain Antonio Rattin refuses to leave the field pretending not to understand the German referee Rudolf Kreitlein; the case lasts seven minutes 67 . To avoid such problems, the Board establishes the universal system of yellow cards and red .
The arbitral body is now composed of a referee who travels on the main field, and two assistant referees evolving along each sideline and equipped with flags. At work, a fourth official is present to provide a replacement in case of injury of one of the other three and is also used to report changes of players and to ensure the maintenance of order in the technical areas (benches players) and on the free ipad 3 sidelines. At the highest level, referees undergo regular physical tests ( Cooper test , in particular).
Since the end of the xx th century , the use of video is often referred to arbitration remedy the problems. This system, however controversial, especially because it is not absolutely reliable and is not applicable at all levels of football, juniors to veterans. On 8 March 2008 , to mark its 122 th annual meeting, the Board suspends, until further notice, technological options after tests inconclusive arbitration tested video Japan and the technical difficulties encountered by the teams working Control of the goal line by electronic means. However, the Board authorizes the establishment of tests with two additional assistant referees to monitor penalty areas 68 .
Assistant referee signaling a goal
As in other disciplines, arbitration is facing corruption problems. The last case to date in Germany 69 , in Belgium 70 , in Italy 71 and Portugal 72 have particularly highlighted the role of some clubs in these cases but also the intervention of bettors. In other cases, players may also be involved. Sanctions (demotion, as canceled, penalty points and prosecution of those involved) and precautions (in Germany, the referee is now designated 48 hours before the game) do not prevent the continuation of these practices. Also, many voices are calling for the establishment of a professional status for the referees.
The status of referees, professional or not, is a recurring theme in recent years. Most referees are amateurs. The FIFA and its president Sepp Blatter advocate for professional arbitration. For the high level games, the referees are contracted by their federation in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and France, linked to the Premier League payday advance in England, and under some kind of contractual relationship in Italy 73 .
The feminization of the arbitration begins before the recognition of women’s football . In France , as expected in 1970 to admit women licensed to FFF but the first woman certified referee is from the 10 November 1967 (Martine Giron, 21) 74 . Since the 1990s , women (Nelly Vienot, in particular, from 23 April 1996 75 ) reached the status of assistant referee in the first division. In 2003 , a male first match of the UEFA is refereed by a woman, Nicole Petignat 76 .
Amenities
Modern football boots
Ball Adidas Teamgeist (2006)
Regulated by the Law 4 , players’ equipment includes a jersey, shorts, a pair of socks, shin guards and shoes. Wearing gloves and goggles are permitted. The guards sometimes wear hats when they face the sun. They must also wear a different colored jersey. The ability to wear a skirt-shorts was mentioned for women’s teams since 2008 77 but the official rules do in fact so far no mention 78 .
The teams have several sets of shirts. Usually a team plays with the colors at home and must adapt to the color of the opponent on the move. The exchange jerseys at the end of the game is a tradition for important matches.
The first woolen jerseys are pretty thick. They are lighter in the first half of the xx th century with the introduction of cotton shirts, and then, thanks to synthetic fibers from the 1960s , they become very light. Polyester and polyamide are used primarily with drainage systems transpiration.
The shoes are the cause of the current boots which are fixed spikes. Not until the 1950s , and the first soccer shoes marketed by Adidas , to see the emergence of modern shoes. Since the 1990s , the best shoes are usually skin kangaroo outsole with plastic cleats and aluminum .
The ball is codified in the Act 2 . Its dimensions are set in 1872 . The ball shall be spherical, leather or other suitable material, having a circumference of 70 cm and at most 68 cm at least, a weight of 450 g and at 410 g at least early in the game and a pressure 0.6 to 1.1 atmosphere (600 – 1100 g / cm 2 ). These dimensions are smaller for balls used by players under 13 years. Since 1 st January 1996 , only balloons having passed the tests of FIFA ( FIFA Approved ) are used in international competitions organized by FIFA or continental confederations 79 .
The players and the game
Play football
Youth team
The game of football is a sport of acquisition, that is to say, it requires skill to acquire a gesture for the practitioner to have access to a satisfactory level of pleasure. Young players usually find football in the playground, in the street or on property wealth on which the goals are simply reported by school bags or jackets. The last step of the discovery, integration into a youth club is required to acquire the essential skill moves that are: ball control, passing, and ball striking. role of educators in teaching Game: The personality of the teacher in charge of the initiation of pre-training and training of players is essential and strongly influences the future of each practitioner. It should give every child the means to discover in this game, then drive it to completion, guiding him in all its technical achievements and collective. Unfortunately, too often, educators do not resist the “championnite room” that leads to aberrations in the name of a victory at all costs, including among younger practitioners. Predominance of acquisitions in the initiation technical exercises juggling with the foot says “strong”, then the foot “low” enables the child to acquire as a privileged contact with the ball. Oppositions such as games at reduced strength, that is to say, two against two, three against three, four against four, allow children to discover the collective aspect of this game, but the dribble and pretense. The ability affirming gesture, the young practitioner can then be opened to the true collective dimension of this game once gained some confidence in his mastery of the ball, the young practitioner can then progress through the game and develop collective his game in motion, corresponding to the two big game situations: our team is in possession of the ball / opponent is in our possession. At this point, an essential quality based on the player’s ability to be in the game, vis-à-vis the ball, his opponents and his partenaires.Autrement said, it should download free ringtones now be able to have observed positions partners and opponents, and then choose the action to perform, all before receiving the ball. Of his technical ability then the quality will depend on the action performed.
It will thus be able to play just faster and faster, and under duress marking an opponent. The most promising players, technically or physically, are detected and join the training centers ( France ), the Academy ( UK ) or clubs called trainers who are responsible for preparing the players to the business of football. A minority of players reached that goal and actually becomes a professional footballer. Indeed, the mental abilities of each candidate in professional sports are increasingly the difference .. So is confidence, resistance to failure, motivation eventually prove decisive. The majority is not selected raspberry ketones to go pro and these players must be content to move at best semi-professional. But it is not uncommon to discover new talents, late in life, who have escaped the eyes of recruiters .. In fact, the selection criteria may seem arbitrary and debatable, given the period of adolescence that can change and upset the behavior of practitioners. With technical maturity, the player will become more open to tactical considerations. Play football involves strenuous physical activity and prolonged. In 90 minutes, depending on his position, a player runs between runescape gold 6 and 11 km and loses an average of 2 kg. Injury, usually at the ankles and knees 80 , affecting all types of players, professional or amateur, young or old. Sudden death, in a match or training, is also a phenomenon affecting all levels. Cases are rare but pose the question of physical limits of the players with the backdrop of the ongoing debate on the calendar, too busy. An athlete can not be 100% on an entire season, and calendar management is part of the game
The doping is now long in football 81 . Very strong suspicions and hover on the German team of 1954 who won the World Cup . The investigation finally washed the Mannschaft who have taken other than bites glucose 82 . The position of the bodies that appear in front their determination to fight against this scourge is rather ambiguous. The FIFA and long refused to entrust the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) the management of this issue. An agreement was reached in June 2006 with the IOC , which required all international federations to sign the World Anti-Doping Code. FIFA, however, retains its authority on suspension 83 .
Aside from baseball , football is the team sport most prone to surprises in a match 84 . The unexpected victory of West Bromwich Albion FC in front of the “Invincible” Preston North End in the final of the FA Cup in 1888 with the elimination of Olympique de Marseille by fans of the USJA Carquefou in the Coupe de France 2007 – 08 , football history is marked by many surprising results. As the saying goes sports suited to football “a game, anything is possible.” This possibility for “small” to overcome the “great” is one of the attractions of football.
Environment players
The first players are mostly students. Gentlemen and workers are the second wave. This same trend outside the British Isles in many countries. Players keep control of the game in its infancy, and leaders are gaining ascendancy at the professional level as an amateur. Then began the long period of “slavery 85 “with players bound for life to their clubs and transferable at the discretion of the leaders who manage to pull down wages. For example, after fifteen years of career, the French international Tadeusz Cisowski affects only 400 francs per month in 1961 86 , or about 30% more than the minimum wage . Players’ unions are formed, however, early in the xx th century in the UK , but they can not really influence these problems 87 . The situation changed in 1960 with the establishment of modern trade unions, as the National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP) in France . The latter argue for higher wages, the establishment of the time contract is binding for life over the player and the club and better retirement conditions. Clubs and other governing bodies do not take these claims seriously, and must yield. The contract time is thus adopted in France in 1969 88 . The fight is being conducted jointly by England since 1961 . The English players’ union gets some financial benefits but clubs refuse to grant the contract form in time. Billy Bremner published a famous passage in early spring 1974 remained as the “white slave”: “He ‘ there is no reason to discriminate between men and footballers 89 ” . The British government intervenes in the wake (April 1974 ) by sending observers to Paris with the FFF , the League and the UNFP to evaluate the system’s time contract 90 . It was not until 1978 to see England take the contract on time 91 . This type of contract then becomes generalized. The nations of Eastern Europe and retain rights to their players for life until the fall of the communist system. Laws prohibiting same all player transfers abroad or limited this possibility, as in Yugoslavia during the 1980s , players over 27 years.
Since the 1970s , the “slaves” were gradually transformed into “Mercenaries 92 . ” Advised by officers , they are playing with the laws of supply and demand to pull wages up. In the mid- 1980s , the salaries of football players are still down compared to other disciplines such as Formula 1 , the basketball U.S., the boxing , the golf and tennis in particular. Diego Maradona receives only the equivalent 7.5 million French francs per season in Naples while the boxer Larry Holmes receives over 45 million during year 1984 93 . The classification of the highest paid athletes in 2006 94 , Sports Illustrated up Ronaldinho in the ranking of football players with $ 32.7 million of income, the same level as the tennis player Roger Federer (31.3 million) but far behind the golfer Tiger Woods (111,900,000).
The profession of player agent is regulated in France since 1992 by law and worldwide by FIFA since 1995 after many abuses 95 . The movement grew with the adoption of the Bosman ruling of 15 December 1995 that abolishes borders in the European Community . Prior to this decision, the number of foreign players playing in the club is set by the leagues and federations, between zero and three, in different countries and eras. In early 2008, there were in the main football leagues: 351 foreign players in Premier League (62.7% of the professional staff), in 263 Bundesliga (53.2%), 182 in Russia (46%), 231 in Serie A (41.5%), 213 in Ligue 1 (39%) and 191 in La Liga (37.1%) 96 .
Transfers have always existed in football and their price is rising rapidly. The Columbia Alf Common was the first player transferred for £ 1 000 ( 1905 ) 97 . The current record is held by the transfer of Cristiano Ronaldo from Manchester United to Real Madrid in 2009 to 94 million 98 . The transfer period is harmonized from 1997 to the year in two periods: the off-season (two months in Europe of 1 st July to 31 August ) and mid-season (from 1 st January to 31 January ). The 1997 regulation also plans to compensate those clubs, until then totally forgotten 99 .
Arsene Wenger , current manager of Arsenal FC
The coach appeared in the late xix th century in Britain . He replaces Captain in many of its functions, the selection of players in the conduct of workouts. Many players become coaches, but the Coach status in some countries is framed by graduation requirements. These degrees and specific training appear in France in the 1920s , but they are becoming essential in the early 1970s under pressure from Georges Boulogne 100 , among others. The coach can earn more sporting and administrative functions. It is then called a manager. This is the normal status of the majority of coaches officiating in England while in Latin countries, leaders retain control over the administrative aspects. Some leaders also not hesitate to intervene in the technical choices, from recruitment to team composition through tactical options.
The replacement players remain long absent regulations. This absence does not prevent a few cases like this change in the player made 20 January 1917 in the Scottish Championship 101 or during international friendly matches. The first change for a qualifying match for World Cup takes place on 11 June 1933 on the occasion of the meeting Sweden – Estonia 102 . It was not until the season 1965-1966 season to see the Premier League allow an injury replacement on 101 . The Scotia adopted the rule a year later 101 . In 1967 , the law allows the game to replace a player at the discretion of the coach 101 . The rule comes into effect in 1967-1968 in national competitions. The first finals of the World Cup is concerned that of 1970 . Two player substitutions are allowed at this 1970 edition. In the final phase, the USSR conducted the first replacement on 31 May 1970 on the occasion of the opening match against Mexico : Viktor Serebryanikov replaces Anatoli Puzach 103 . The second alternative is gradually allowed in national competitions ( in 1976 in France 104 ). A third replacement player is allowed in 1995 105 . Originally, a single versatile replacement was available to perform the single replacement. It flows logically to two players on the bench in 1970 and then to a maximum of seven ( 1996 105 ) in international competitions and some national competitions. The number of replacements is free in a friendly match following agreement between the two teams and is limited to six maximum in 2005 for international friendly matches between national teams 106 .
Changes tactics
Main article: Features tactics in football .
Tactical device “WM”
The years 1880 to 1925 , the essential part of a team’s center forward who is the tip of an education that included five forwards, three midfielders and two defenders. The attackers must be powerful because the offside is served if fewer than three players are among the opponents’ goal line and he who receives a pass. The transition from three to two players for offside the game is changing radically We go from 4,700 goals scored per season in both divisions of League English in 6373 upon the entry into application of this amendment 107 . The coach Herbert Chapman is developing an innovative tactic, known as “WM”, that is to say three defenders, two circles, two pontics (midfielders) and three attackers 107 . The four players from midfield up the magic square 108 , marking the rise of an attacking midfielder (or international) whose role is to feed the center forward in balloons.
The WM reigns supreme until 1953 and the famous defeat of the English at home against the Hungarians , who are already changing as 4-2-4. Before the triumph of 4-2-4, 4-3-3 and 4-4-2 others, Swiss, French and Italians are developing tactics based on the defense: the “Swiss lock” (or “lock Rappan “the name of the player-Austrian Karl Rappan which sets up the system to Servette Geneva in one thousand nine hundred and thirty-two 109 ), the “concrete” (initiated by Robert Accard the early 1930s the French stage 110 and practiced in particular by Charleville in in 1936 one hundred and eleven ) and the ” Catenaccio . ” These tactics include refined after WWII by Helenio Herrera and available in many countries, for example giving rise to ” Riegel “in Germany . The main innovation of this device tactic is the creation of the position of libero , or sweeper named bétonneur originally. He stands behind the defensive line, usually three and four players, and has the task of filling in the gaps.
Tactical device “4-4-2″
In 1958 , the Brazilian team won its first World Cup on the basis of an effective non-standard and a 4-2-4 tactic. It is a form of compromise between the offensive and defensive strategies. New tactical evolution of Brazilians in 1962 , with a device in 4-3-3, where the left wing, Mario Zagallo , is converted into a midfielder 107 . These tactics are found rather offensive, however, the penalty against very rigorous training, such as Inter Milan in Europe or Peñarol in South America . The German also fails in some World Cups 1966 and 1970 by practicing a strict concrete.
Available tactic is nothing without animation speed of the game takes a leading role here. On the principle of passing , Bill Shankly at Liverpool FC and José Arribas at FC Nantes ( Nantes game to ) develop a very fast paced animation in the early 1960s , leading to inevitable errors. These must be offset by a collective welded, not only reluctant to perform tasks defensive or offensive, depending on the needs of the team. This is the ” total football “advocated by Rinus Michels at the Ajax Amsterdam in the early 1970s .
By convention, we assign a physical style of football in Northern Europe and a more technical style to the Latins. It’s a cliche, but this almost philosophical opposition between realism and the show left a lasting policy debates. Thus, the game’s Stade de Reims developed in the late 1940s and who delights crowds French and European until the late 1950s , is accused of “Latin” because it focuses on the technical and the passing game . Gabriel Hanot hated “little game” of Reims preferring more physical game, “the British”. The French press is torn in these debates until the early 1970s . Team and Football France were in favor of efficiency; Mirror football defending football show.
The modern game is more realistic based primarily on solid defensively. We are witnessing the development of devices in 5-3-2, 4-5-1 and 5-4-1 with players corridors replacing wingers of the past.
Iconic players
Pele , considered the best player of all time.
Throughout its history, football scored a lot of exceptional players. It is not possible to list them all here, refer to Category: Footballer by nationality to have a more complete list. Among these iconic players, this chapter distinguishes several players who own the best record in terms of number of selections and titles won by a club or national team. By their activity, they cover the period 1894-2008. Football has its heroes from the late xix th century . Some of these players are now forgotten, but yet they were greeted in their time as the most brilliant practitioners of the game FIFA 100 , a list of 125 greatest living footballers compiled by former international Brazilian Pele , not interested in these great old. Some nations honor their elders, as England has set up in 2002 the English Football Hall of Fame .
For goalkeepers, the Spaniard Ricardo Zamora one hundred twelve ( 1 901 – one thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight ) and the Austrian Rudi Hiden ( 1 909 – 1973 ) are considered the best porters in the 1930s . Russia’s Lev Yashin ( 1929 – one thousand nine hundred ninety ), the Englishman Gordon Banks ( 1937 -) and Italy’s Dino Zoff 113 ( 1942 -) is needed after the World War II .
Austria’s Gerhard Hanappi ( 1929 – in 1980 ), Germany’s Franz Beckenbauer, one hundred and fourteen ( 1 945 -) and Italy’s Franco Baresi ( 1960 -) are emblematic of the defensive systems they practiced with intelligence, while in midfield Uruguayan Jose Andrade ( one thousand nine hundred and one – 1957 ), the Italian Giovanni Rivera ( 1943 -), Italian Alessandro Mazzola ( 1942 -) Netherlands Johan Cruijff 115 ( 1947 -), Argentine Diego Maradona 116 ( 1960 -) French and Raymond Kopa ( 1931 -), Michel Platini 117 ( 1955 -) and Zinedine Zidane ( 1972 -) allied to the best creativity, technique and efficiency.
For attackers, the dental assisting Welshman Billy Meredith ( 1 874 – 1958 ), Austrian Matthias Sindelar ( one thousand nine hundred and three – in 1939 ), the Uruguayan Pedro Petrone ( 1905 – 1,964 ), Italians Giuseppe Meazza ( 1,910 – one thousand nine hundred seventy-nine ) and Silvio Piola ( 1913 – 1996 ), Brazilians Leonidas da Silva ( 1913 – 2004 ), Garrincha 118 ( 1933 – 1983 ) and Pele 119 ( 1940 -), French Just Fontaine ( 1933 -) and Morocco’s playing for France Benbarek Larbi ( 1910 – 1992 ), the Englishman Stanley Matthews ( 1915 – 2000 ), Argentine Ángel Labruna ( 1918 – 1983 ) and Alfredo Di Stefano ( 1926 -), Hungarian Ferenc Puskas 120 ( 1927 – 2006 ) and Sandor Kocsis ( 1929 – 1979 ), the Germans Uwe Seeler ( 1936 -) and Gerd Muller 121 ( 1945 -), Portugal’s Eusebio 122 ( 1942 -) and Dutchman Marco van Basten ( 1964 -) were among the most effective. The player with the most number of goals in a competitive match is the Austrian Josef Bican ( one thousand nine hundred and thirteen – 2 001 ) (804) before the Brazilians Romario ( 1966 -) (771) and Pele (765) 123 . The two Brazilian players fêtèrent yet with great fanfare their 1000 th goal, also taking into account the goals scored in a friendly club.
Each year, several titles are awarded to top players. Most of these prestigious honors are the Golden Ball France Football , created in 1956 , the FIFA World Player of the Year (since 1991 ), the African Golden Ball (since 1970 ) and Best player of the South American year (since 1971 ).
Competitions
Club competitions
Domestic
FA Cup.
Before the emergence of the first official competitions, calendar of clubs consists only of friendly matches. Today such events still popular until the 1960′s has become anecdotal. They had to yield to the increasing number of tests. Yet in 1871 , some English clubs were unable to enroll in the first edition of the FA Cup , their calendars are booked 124 . In search of stability, the English clubs set up a first championship in 1888-1889 . The two basic elements of the timetable are in place: the championship and the cup.
Most countries are in fact two types of competitions: the national championship, which is the major national competition, and national cups or whose number varies by country. In England , Spain and France , including the National Cup was created before the championship. Also, the FA Cup , the Copa del Rey or the Cup Charles Simon , possess a special aura. However, the Coppa Italia which is created after the emergence of league Serie A is not a race prized by tifosi and the Italian clubs. In South America, the idea of national cups is very low. There are also sections tell of the league, bringing in some countries the only professional club. This is the Scotland which introduced this innovation in 1947 ( Scotland League Cup ).
The championships are the justices as they allow to assess the value of a club on a full season. Some clubs may excel in irregular cuts of hard won league titles, and vice versa. Clubs meet regularly can toil implied special jousting matches cut, after which one of the two protagonists is definitely ruled out of the competition.
The champion is usually designated at the end of the season by adding the points won throughout the season. Formerly, a victory brought two points, a draw one point and a loss zero points. Since the year 1980 , the championships have gradually adopted the system of three-point victory to give a premium to risk taking. Some leagues do not end at the end of the season called regular. The champion is so designated after the play-offs involving the top-ranked clubs. This system typical American sports is rare in football, but it is for example used in the United States . As in 2008 – two thousand and nine , the Belgian Championship adopts the system of play-offs with an elite from 18 to 16 clubs 125 .
Trophy Bundesliga
Another major difference with the traditional American system, the opportunity to get in and out of division. When the English Division 2 was created in 1892 , the elite clubs refuse at first to waive the privilege to evolve in Division 1. Small Heath , D2 champion in 1892 – 93 , and is not promoted D1. The so-called promotion / relegation is automatically created in 1 899 one hundred and twenty-six after a transition period with dams air mattress reviews match between the first and last of D2 to D1. The League remains long hostile to all leagues with automatic promotions called “Non-League” (outside the League ). A vote of professional clubs determines the fate of the last of the last division of the League and decided to replace it or not the champion league semi-pro 127 . In 1986 , the League accepts the creation of a system of promotion / relegation with the automatic Conference (at D5). Of France made this change from 1970 with the establishment of a pyramid scheme championships after using the system of closed professional league in 1932 to 1970 . Some professionals become amateur clubs during this period, but these promotions had nothing to do with the results recorded in the field. Looking for big cities to house professional clubs, the League even wiped the refusal of some clubs and municipalities, Dijon in the first 128 . In a few countries like the United States , there is no system of promotion / relegation (automatic or not) between different levels.
Unlike the English model, the championships are usually created on a regional basis with the play-offs between the different regional champions at the end of the season to designate a national champion. This particular system remains in use in France from 1894 to 1919 129 , to the Netherlands from 1897 to 1956 130 , in Italy from 1898 to 1929 131 , and in Germany until 1963 132 , date of creation of the Bundesliga .
In many countries of Latin America , the championships are held in the form of opening and closing swearing two champions each year. In Brazil , however, the competitions are held without the duplicates. The national championship is fairly new ( 1971 ) and state championships that compete in the first months of the year will keep a significant. Unlike the South American countries, Brazil has a national cup, the Copa do Brasil , founded in 1989 .
International competitions
The first international inter-club competitions are usually tournaments taking place during the Easter holidays or year-end. Let me quote here one of the oldest, the Challenge International du Nord which opposes every year mainly French and Belgian clubs between 1898 and 1914 . Tournaments of this type are very numerous. Some of them are remembered because of the plateau of teams. This is particularly the case of the 1930 Nations Cup played in Geneva ( Switzerland ) and the International Tournament of the 1937 Universal Exhibition in Paris with all major clubs in the Old Continent.
The trophy of the Champions League from UEFA
The link between these tournaments and continental competitions in Europe today is ensured by the establishment of regional international events. Clubs of Central Europe and compete annually since 1927 in the Mitropa Cup while the Latin Cup ( 1949 – 1957 ) involves the champions of Italy, Spain, Portugal and France.
The development of air transport and installation of lighting for night matches, played in weeks, make possible the creation of modern continental competitions. The European Champions’ Cup (now Champions League UEFA ) was introduced to Paris by the sports daily The Team 133 . The first edition took place in 1955-56 . Once reserved only for national champions, the “C1″ is experiencing a gradual change during the years 1990 to open at some runners-and even third and fourth best nations. The UEFA coefficients that take into account the cumulative results over the last five seasons are used to establish an objective hierarchy giving nations a number of participating clubs. Besides the Champions League, the European Cup Winners’ Cup (formerly C2), the Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) (C3), the Intertoto Cup and UEFA Super Cup are other events organized by the UEFA.
On the European model, the other confederations shall have in place similar competitions like the Copa Libertadores (since 1960 ) in South America , the Champions League CAF (since 1964 ) in Africa or the Champions League AFC (since 1967 ) in Asia . The winners of the European C1 and the Copa Libertadores meet between 1960 and 2004 for the Intercontinental Cup . Open to other continents such inter-club events at the highest-level, FIFA set up, not without difficulty, a World Cup clubs . A first edition held in 2000 , then the test becomes Annual 2005 .
National team competitions
The British Home Championship ( 1 883 – one thousand nine hundred and eighty-four ) is the first competition between national teams. The project of a World Cup projects included in the Cup since its inception in 1904 . She finally sees the day in 1930 , under pressure from the rise of the Olympic football tournament . With the professionalization of football outside the British Isles since the year 1 920 – one thousand nine hundred and thirty , national teams present at the Games are more teams A, but the selections of Olympic cash only amateur players. The nations of the east, officially amateur, Olympic tournaments dominate after World War II . In 1992 the IOC allows professionals to align the Games but FIFA refused to send teams A. The teams involved are the hopes (under 21 at the beginning of the elimination phase, more than a year before the Olympics, the IOC appoints these formations “under 23″) reinforced by three players over 23 years 134 . Some selections do not use this last option and only send their teams to the Games hopes.
The World Cup , held every four years, is the flagship event of the calendar. It is created by Jules Rimet , then president of FIFA . 32 national teams taking part in the finals with the next edition is scheduled in 2014 in Brazil . They are qualified after the qualification rounds of the spring confederations that are held during the two seasons prior to final. After the 2010 edition, won eight caps at least once the World Cup: the Brazil (5 times), the Italian (4), the Germany (3), of Argentina (2), the Uruguay (2), the England (1), France (1) and Spain (1).
Confederations also organize events Continental: UEFA European Nations , African Nations Cup , Gold Cup , Asian Cup of Nations , Copa America and Oceania Cup football .
Founded in 1992 , the Confederations Cup is held every four years since 2005 . It pits the winner of World Cup title and won the Continental Cup of each confederation.
This scheme is valid for older men, but there are the same type of organization for youth categories ( World Cup football under 20 in particular) and female.
Women’s football
Main article: Women’s football .
Genesis Women’s Football
Main article: Debut of women’s football .
Meeting women’s football in France in February 1923
Women playing football since the late xix th century in England and Scotland 135 . The France sets up the first national championship just after the First World War 136 . The recipes are such that players are paid through the practice of amateurism brown 137 . The barrage against the practice of football by women is increasing 138 and the death of a player, Miss Richards CV, in full match in 1926 reinforces the proponents of the ban. Henri Desgranges ( The Self ) is more radical yet from 1925 : “Let the girls playing sports together, in a strictly closed field, inaccessible to the public: yes agree. But they put on a show, some holidays, where the public will be invited, they even dare to run after a ball in a field that is not surrounded by thick walls, that’s intolerable 139 ! ” . The men’s bodies already refuse to admit since the early 1920s laid the female and they must organize themselves into an independent federation of the two sides of the Channel. The championship of France of women’s football , which shone including Femina Sport , stops in 1933 140 . Yet favorable to women’s sports , the Vichy regime “strictly prohibits” the practice in the Hexagon business email lists in 1941 . Football is considered “harmful to women 141 . ”
Almost anecdotal, the practice continues after the Second World War but it was not until the mid- 1960s to witness the revival of women’s football : in 1969 – 1970 , federations English , French and German and recognize the women’s football 142 . It lists 2,170 licensed at the FFF for the season 1970 – 71 , 4900 and the following season 143 .
At the international level, a first European Cup was organized in 1969 144 . It pits the England , the Danish , the France and Italy . Women’s football is not officially recognized by FIFA and UEFA , the competition was “unofficial”.
Globally, the first World Cup was played in July 1970 145 . It’s still a competition “unofficial”. After many such organizations, the UEFA ( one thousand nine hundred and eighty-four ) one hundred and forty-six then the FIFA ( 1 991 ) 147 recognize a need to set up competitions “official” World Cup women’s soccer and UEFA European Women’s Football particular.
Modern women’s game
Mia Hamm
A young goalie
Following the revival of women’s football, which begins in the late 1960s , nanotechnology may hold competitions modeled on the male model with national championships, international competitions for clubs and national teams. In Europe , this movement is framed by the national federations while in the United States , the school and university sport that makes possible this development. The adoption on 23 June 1972 of Title IX funding for women’s sports school and university is determining U.S. 148 ; women’s football is taking maximum advantage even if the practice is limited to high level only a few universities, North Carolina Tar Heels in the first head. With a base of several million players of practitioners (more than all the nations of the UEFA met), it is logical to see the emergence of a U.S. national team leading who won two World Cups in 1991 and 1999 and two gold medals and one silver in the three Olympic tournaments ( 1996 – 2004 ). Unlike the men’s version, the women’s Olympic tournament brings together the best training, no age requirements and must be adapted when it was first held in 1996 as one of the major meetings of the calendar.
The Europe and South America do not remain inactive, but decide to apply the same patterns as those followed by male practitioners. Federations and put in place national competitions whose level rises gradually, then incorporate into their national teams a female component. The Norwegian , winner of the 1995 World Cup and twice European champion in 1987 and 1993 , and Germany , four times European champion from 1989 to 1997 , building on the foundations of Richard Barry many more players, dominate the end of the xx th century . Norway then underwent a sharp decline in the hierarchy after the rise of other nations such as England , the Sweden or France in Europe, Brazil in South America and China in Asia , while Germany itself as a world reference by winning the World Cups 2003 and 2007 and three new European titles in 2001 , 2005 and 2009 . The FIFA publishes four times a year a ranking of best national teams in women’s football, and this ranking is dominated by the United States and Germany .
International women’s football match (Brazil-United States, final 2007 Pan American Games )
At club level, privately U.S. championship organized the first professional female in 2001 : the Women’s United Soccer Association (WUSA). Eight franchises bringing together the best players in the world, not just American, compete for three seasons. At the end of the edition 2003 , the League ceased operations due to large fiscal deficits. Since then, the best club competitions compete in Germany , in Sweden or England , where players play as a semi-professional. In France, the status of federal player (prosumer), however, possible for male players moving up to Division d’Honneur (D6), is not allowed for the players, even international. The Olympique Lyonnais , however, put feet on a women’s team semi-professional pennant since the incorporation of the women’s section of FC Lyon in Lyon in 2004 149 . Similarly, the French media give little space to women’s football 150 , while the Hexagon clubs are dragging their feet to set up women’s teams. In Germany , the situation is quite different. The German announcement and in April 2008 have surpassed the million licensed female 151 ; in France, there are only 60,521 licensed women in a st July 2007 152 . Of the 301 000 registered clubs in the world by FIFA , 26 000 have at least one women’s team 1 .
The top European clubs meet every season since the 2001-2002 season in the UEFA Women’s Cup (renamed Champions League UEFA Women in 2009-2010 ). Swedish and German clubs dominate the charts. South America decides to organize a similar competition in 2009 with the creation of the feminine Libertadores . There are also international tournaments bringing together the best national teams as the Algarve Cup which takes place every year in Portugal since 1994 .
Licensed players (in thousands, in a st July 2006 )
Stages
Main article: Football Stadium .
The playground to stadium
The playground
The land of cricket left deserted during the winter, they are used early in the history of the game Those who may have facilities including cricket also changing rooms and forums are minority, however. Must often be content to play on a ground more or less well marked and changing the corner cafe. Some matches, however, quickly draining a certain crowd, and the first attempts of paid admissions are made in England since the 1860s . In continental Europe, the velodrome play the role of cricket grounds in the UK.
Past the stage of simple pavilion to house the officers and their guests then installing feasible or not covered around the pitch to the other spectators, the early stages are mainly of wood, but the dimensions of the stands, always more imposing, soon require the use of a metal frame. Among the leading architects initiating this development include the iconic Archibald Leitch who operates from 1904 to 1939 .
After the Second World War , the stages experienced by many revolutions, the cantilever roof (without support poles in the middle of the stands) for the construction of lighting systems for night matches. The first experiments of matches played in the spotlight dating from 1878 , but such meetings, banned in England from 1930 to 1950 , remained marginal until after the Second World War 153 . Lighting is only a few hundred lux , but the TV requires at least 800 lux to film the meetings properly. This urgent request of the television and progress in lighting systems now enable best stadiums have at least 1500 lux.
The playground is also experiencing changes with the development of heating systems to prevent freezing of the ground or even the adoption of playing surfaces more or less artificial. The natural grass is still the most common. Some English clubs are installing coatings completely artificial as QPR , Luton , Preston and Oldham in the 1980s , but the FA slows the experiments but failed to ban 154 . Same comment at the FIFA does not recommend that this surface but not prohibited. However, this type of coating is long proscribed by FIFA in final World Cup. At the 1994 World Cup played in the United States , stages had to be equipped with all natural grass, Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit (Michigan) and Giants Stadium ( New Jersey ) in the first place. Following the changes of the certification tests of FIFA ( 2 001 ) one hundred and fifty-five , it is now possible to use an artificial pitch in the finals of the World Cup. However, the case never have occurred. Yet equipped since 2002 with an artificial grass certified by FIFA, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow has a natural grass pitch to host the final of the Champions League 2007-2008 UEFA 156 .
Comfort and safety
The Südtribüne the Signal Iduna Park in Dortmund
Comfort and safety of spectators remain a long anecdotal concept for architects and managers, who seek only maximize the return on their enclosures. Despite the proliferation of tragedies and accidents , the authorities are aware of this problem later. The UEFA reacts after the Heysel disaster ( 1985 ), but English football, however, primarily concerned with the dead of Heysel, does not change its policy after the drama of Sheffield ( 1989 ) with the implementation of ” Taylor Report “, including banning the standing room in England 157 . The German , who had refused to broadcast live the events of Heysel, launching a thorough examination of these issues at this time. It gives its fruit at the time of the 2006 World Cup , with speakers fully integrating the needs of comfort and safety. Note the maintenance of a podium with standing room at the Signal Iduna Park in Dortmund : the famous Südtribüne , together with its 25 000 seater stand, is the largest platform in Europe. This maintenance was negotiated by the fans. The famous “Kop” of Anfield ( Liverpool ) was not so lucky. Designed in 1906 to accommodate 30,000 spectators, the capacity of this list is reduced first in 1970 to 25,000 seats following an incident during a match between European Liverpool and Ajax Amsterdam in December 1966 : relief had been unable to move into a platform 158 . The last part with the standing spectators plays a st May 1994 to 16 480 kopites . Since then, the Kop has 12,277 seats.
The new Wembley Stadium
Latin countries remain strangely aloof from these debates. Even the drama of Furiani ( 1992 ) in France does not cause awareness, and even today, many speakers used by professionals does not meet minimum security. Disorders of the 2006-2007 season in Italy and have highlighted the serious shortfall in this area of Italian stadiums 159 . Huge investments are needed to upgrade these stages and some nations have not thought it appropriate to this work. France had the opportunity yet to do so in 1998 by organizing the World Cup , but it preferred to focus solely on the Stade de France rather than to take this opportunity to equip themselves. The League has tried to establish in 1990 the minimum criteria in terms of stages to develop into professional, but it is unsuccessful on 20 November 2003 by the State Council , requested by the Ministry of Sports , hostile criteria : it is impossible for the French League not to admit a club professional reasons of non-compliant facilities 160 .
Thus, England and Germany now offer the audience to take place in modern stadiums, and the average audience to reach record levels. In France and Italy, the speakers have at least a generation behind, and the crowds have stagnated in France and Italy plunge (twice fewer spectators in the stadiums in the mid- 1980s ).
Among the most emblematic stages include in America the Maracana in Rio de Janeiro , La Bombonera in Buenos Aires , the Azteca Stadium in Mexico and Europe , Wembley in London , recently rebuilt, the Estadio Santiago Bernabeu in Madrid , the Camp Nou to Barcelona and San Siro in Milan . Other speakers most modern, but still young in history, also deserve a mention as the Amsterdam ArenA , the Allianz Arena in Munich and the Emirates Stadium in London .
Spectators in the league averages 161
Football Culture
The writer Albert Camus , a former football goalkeeper, paid tribute to the sport.
Main article: Culture of football .
Football, “universal language 162 “for some authors, creates a specific culture with its codes, its vocabulary , its initiation rites and all its attendant artistic productions. Film to the song through all the arts, football is indeed a universal source of inspiration for over a century. The French humanist Albert Camus , former goalkeeper 163 , also makes a tribute to football, saying: “Everything I know about safer about morality and obligations of men, it is football I owe 164 ” . Camus was a goalkeeper in the ideal team of philosophers of France if the latter had been invited to the football game for philosophers of Monty Python ( 1972 ). Raymond Aron could have completed this training, he who wrote two months before the beginning of the 1982 World Cup :
“Do not spoil this great celebration, not friendship, but competition among nations through fragile artists. Subject to competition rules, controlled by the referees, is it not, ultimately, the only image of reconciliation between peoples consistent with the nature of communities and perhaps the man himself 165 ? ”
The songs are important in soccer culture. Clubs and national teams create some songs are genuine commercial success, of the Go Green! of Jacques Monty in France in the mid 1970′s to multiple songs edited English clubs from 1971 166 . Include Leeds United ( Leeds Utd ), No. 10 in the British charts in April 1971 167 , Good old Arsenal ( Arsenal ) No. 16 in May 1971 168 , The blue is our color ( Chelsea ) No. 5 in March 1972 169 , I’m forever blowing bubbles ( West Ham ) No. 31 in May 1975 170 , We can do it ( Liverpool FC ) No. 15 in May 1977 171 , and Glory Glory Man United ( Manchester United ) No. 13 in May 1983 170 . However, fans generally prefer to recycle songs unrelated to football. Thus, the hymn is emblematic supporters ‘ll Never Walk Alone since 1965 and its adoption by the fans of Liverpool FC and Celtic . This song was created for an American musical unrelated to football. Some artists, however, are directly inspired by the phenomenon football. The band Queen and operates titles such influence in his We Will Rock You and We Are the Champions 172 .
In the field of cinema , all aspects of the game have been explored since 1911 and the first film of its kind, The Footballer Harry Lewin of Columbia Fitzhamon 173 : the madness of some fans in Death to the referee of Jean-Pierre Mocky ( 1984 , a year before the Heysel Drama ) to social satire with Head Butt of Jean-Jacques Annaud ( 1979 ), passing by the particular historical epic with The Miracle of Bern ( Das Wunder von Bern ) of Sönke Wortmann ( 2003 ) and exoticism with Cup ( The Cup ), film-Australian Bhutanese Khyentse Norbu ( 1999 ) recounting the adventures of two young Tibetan refugees in a Buddhist monastery, which try to follow the 1998 World Cup to television , examples that show again and again the universality of football.
In the field of painting, we include Footballers abstract of Nicolas de Stael , series of 25 paintings and many sketches by the artist painted during a match France – Sweden in 1952 at the Parc des Princes 174 .
Nick Hornby
In literature, Nick Hornby published Fever Pitch in 1992 that changed the perception of corruption borne by the British. Also include authors such as Peter Bourgeade ( Soccer is war continued by other means at Gallimard in 1981 ) or the lightest Rene Fallet ( The Tricycle in Denoël in 1951 ) without forgetting the pioneers of Henry Montherlant ( 1,895 – 1972 ), Jean Giraudoux ( 1882 – 1944 ) and Albert Camus ( 1913 – 1960 ) who introduced football in the literature. In Germany , you go up the pieces of theater focused on football: the burlesque play a footballer and an American Indian ( Fussballspieler und Indianer , written in 1924 and mounted in 1926 ), pointing satire already place of media in sport Under the red jersey and white ( Stimmung Rot-Weiss , 1971 ) and The War of the States ( Länderkampf , 1971), denouncing the nationalist passions engendered by football. German radio broadcasts of parts designed for this media as The Game ( Das Fussballspiel , 1967 – 1969 ), The Ball ( 1974 , short of supporters counters) or Der syntetische Seler ( 1973 ).
Players of Subbuteo
Fun at the base, football is also available in a range of outdoor games, trays or video. The most iconic are the Foosball and Subbuteo . Since the advent of video games , football is among the most promising topics. The football video game Pro Evolution Soccer is the cultural product as sold in France in 2006 175 .
Other products are directly related to football such as Panini stickers that kids collect, or match programs, which play an important role in relations between clubs and supporters in the United Kingdom , among others. Similarly, paris on football matches held a prominent place in the field of sports paris. The Totocalcio Italian (created on 5 May 1946 176 ) and Quiniela Spanish (season 1946 – 1947 177 ) are real institutions, not to mention the British practitioners of Paris since the beginning of the game and more framed since 1923 178 . France is the last nation in Europe to allow paris on football matches (17 April 1985 179 ). A tax, more or less severe depending on the country, is generally levied on these paris to finance the sports movement.
The historical study of football is an important part of football culture . Endure anything worthy of the name is an expert on the history of “his” club. Long abandoned for journalists who often leave to go to the emphasis, the history of football passes gradually into the field of historians . The Anglo-Saxons are leaders in this area while the Latin nations still prefer to leave the pen reporters. In the late 1980s , the French historian Alfred Wahl calls for an evolution 180 , but the work of historians weigh nothing against disclosure often legendary clubs covered by the media.
Supporters
Main article: Football Supporter .
“The Supporter. Do not laugh, you all know at least one. The bear, the true, the common fan who shouts, who yelled along the key is an unconscious victim of the madness of football. But it is also a strange being as well as dangerous, primarily because it supports nothing … against his club and the club has done well, it never will manage to get rid of this octopus called support. Why is it doomed to Union Sportive of X, rather than at the Sporting Club in the same city, he could not say himself. (…)
During the game, he goes by both the anxieties and manifestations of joy most overflowing. He is appalled and radiant for ten minutes for another fifteen. The goals scored against his team are always off-side. The referee is a pig and the linesmen are sold. And it is exhausted, torn, his face distorted it goes after the match at the headquarters of his club, where he collapses, more tired than the players themselves. Here, the eye dull and foggy, a friend made him well the story of his recent escapades, but it does not even deign to smile more gay passage in the story. But then the friend has incidentally mentioned the name of his club. His eyes light up, his hand gets upset, his mouth closed until disdainfully, opens. He will speak. He speaks. And now it is beautiful bear. It describes its joys, the beauties of his club. The words abound, the metaphors rush, it is a river of eloquence which you tumble, immerses you and leads you into a raging torrent.
Do not try to resist, give yourself the contrary, for you are his victim. It keeps you and not let you down when you have recognized that his club is the largest, strongest and largest of all the clubs in France. ”
extract Football and Athletic Sports November 12, 1910 , p. 2 (unsigned article)
Football leads a vast movement of popular support, sometimes unconditional: the phenomenon of fans. Fans of the same club may be organized into groups or movements called supporters’ associations. Some groups pay in hooliganism .
The phenomenon of fans there since antiquity 181 , and even before the codification of football, and through all the benefits of this movement are already well known. The cricket is English so hard hit by a wave of violence from supporters of the 1770 early xix th century . The overwhelming majority of sports fans are peaceful and festive, it is simplistic to treat this subject only in terms of violence. Similarly, reducing the support to a consumer product merchandising is also a commonplace. Sports authorities, themselves, have also still not completely integrated with the fans in the “football carpet cleaning Kansas City family”. Michel Platini , president of UEFA , has planned to correct this oversight 182 .
But supporters have a key role in the financing of clubs, entertainment stages and allow players to give the best of themselves in the field. The nickname “twelfth man” is not usurped. They also represent a form of power in the face against the leaders. Thus, in England and France , moves from clubs, with American, are tempted by some leaders in search of better “markets”. Pressure from fans is such that these moves are purely mercenary now banned in France after the controversial merger of Toulouse FC first version with the Red Star in 1967 and outstanding in England: isolated case of Wimbledon FC who moved to http://www.insuranceforcriticalillness.co.uk/ Milton Keynes in 2003 becoming the Milton Keynes Dons Football Club . In response to this move, Wimbledon fans have created their own club AFC Wimbledon 183 .
The rivalries in football mainly affect supporters. The derbies and other posters gala are important appointments for the fans who then compete in the areas of song or animation forums (and sometimes violence) to make an ascendancy over the rival fans. The most dramatic rivalries in Europe are those between Celtic and Rangers in Glasgow , while in South America the Super Clasico Boca – River Plate peaked in the genre.
Supporters gather quickly in fan clubs. From the end of xix th century , such groups already exist in the UK . They are usually under the direct authority of the club. These are fan clubs “official”. One of the main goals of these associations is to raise money for their club. Since the inception of the movement of Torcida in Brazil in the 1940s , some groups become independent supporters club and even claim merit grants from her. This is the basis of the movement called “ultra”. Ultra culture is highly developed in Latin America and is beginning to affect the former Yugoslavia in Europe from 1950 184 . This movement is spreading through the Italy from the 1960s . The ultra wave hit France in the mid- 1980s . If the majority of these groups shows a real pacifism, violence is no stranger to ultra movement. The codes used are however not the same as those in use among the British hooligans, more individualistic, and therefore totally foreign to the rivalry between certain Income Protection Insurance groups within the same clubs. After the Heysel disaster, the term became synonymous with barbaric hooligan. A more radical movement inspired British-Dutch-allemando the Hools, however, takes over. The latter often use violence for purely private purposes, without real links with the club. Some authors refer to the term of all hooligan hooligans, while there are more than a nuance between one bear lambda suddenly becoming violent and taking a stand opposing.
Bordeaux Ultras
Excluded from European competition following the Heysel disaster , England is the first nation to enact strict rules against violence. Despite this commitment and the legal arsenal that accompanies it, the problem persists in England and on the sidelines of meetings in the lower divisions. After testing the bunkerization stages with the introduction of fences and other harrows for crowd control, the authorities now prefer to deal with the problem by prohibiting upstream stage of violent fans to abandon a defensive and very aggressive, still de rigueur in many nations, which give the appearance of certain stages in war zones. It is often assumed that France, which remains relatively unaffected by such violent phenomena, does not deal effectively with the problem [ref. required] . Clubs, police, justice and political authorities passing the buck [ref. required] . In Italy, where the ultra-violent movement is very active, the authorities are often seen as ill-equipped to cope with the phenomenon 185 . Same in Spain, including [ref. required] . In South America , the birthplace of the ultra movement, the past several decades to a radicalization of supporters [ref. required] . Punishment is ineffective as fierce with groups of Barra Bravas ultra violent 186 .
Similarly, leaders are often criticized to perpetuate the racist actions of some supporters by their passivity [ref. required] . At the beginning of xxi th century , and we note that many of the fans banned from attending football in France 187 and in Belgium 188 , for example, are for attempts to introduce smoke into the speakers. If the player of Valenciennes Abdeslam Ouaddou had not drawn attention to bear messin making repeated use of racial slurs against him on 16 February 2008 , it was never worried. It is finally arrested at the output of stage 189 .
Invasion of land
Most often peaceful and festive, the invasions of land at the end of some games giving particular title are also very spectacular. For security reasons, this type of event is rare. Other invasions of land, much less festive, exceptionally occur during certain meetings, open game. This was particularly the case during the match France – Algeria ‘s 6 October 2001 at the Stade de France . The match was finally stopped at a quarter of an hour from the end 190 .
Having been among the most violent supporters, Scottish fans have become more peaceful since the 1970s 191 . Studies have shown a significant age difference between violent fans and those who are festive: 23 years on average for England fans during the Euro 1988 against the Danes 31 years 192 . 15% of Danish fans were women as against only 2% in English 192 . Some clubs also have a public inviolable fidelity despite poor results for several generations. They include for example Newcastle United FC in England .
Football and Media
Old and new magazines addressing only football.
Football is entering the mainstream press and the press from the sports xix th century . Some titles, however, refuse to treat the roots of the sport too popular; The Field (est. 1853 ) which deals mainly with sports “noble” as the tennis , the golf , the horse racing and hunting only opens its columns to football than to denigrate. Same story in France with the newspaper L’Auto , which multiplies each of the rugby but refuses to give football its first page to the Great War 193 .
A less uptight sports press was born at the very end of the century, and these titles include a strong football. This release is still recording solid runs at the beginning of xxi th century with a periodicity daily, weekly or monthly. Among the major headlines daily sports include A Bola , O Jogo and Record in Portugal , La Gazzetta dello Sport , Tuttosport and Corriere dello Sport – Stadio in Italy , Marca and As in Spain , Olé in Argentina and Team in France . It was not until the inter-war years to witness the emergence of a press. Thus, in France , besides the weekly Football Association , the official organ of the FFFA created on 4 October 1919 , as the first dedicated exclusively to the weekly football Football ( 1929 – 1944 ) who proudly displays in the header “The largest circulation weekly football around the world. ” This title serves as a reference to the Second World War . France Football succeeded him after the Liberation .
The print media plays a major role in media coverage of the game, but also in organizing competitions, notably in France. Hachette is how the “indispensable support 194 ‘of the French federation during the first ten editions of the Cup of France . The newspaper Le Petit Parisien takes over for the latest editions of the Cup before the Second World War 195 and also became the partner of first editions of the professional championship of France . The European Champion Clubs’ Cup was created by the French daily Team in 1955 . Initially, the young UEFA (founded 1954 ) is not opposed to this private organization, but FIFA , fearing privatization organizations, pushes UEFA to take a test to their account with the draw of the first tower had already taken place 196 .
The clubs have written media longstanding program in the first game. The Celtic View 197 , weekly dealing solely with the news of the Scottish club Celtic FC is published since 1965 . Many other clubs then endow weekly or monthly or are treated by press titles more or less independent clubs. The AS Roma is so far the only club treated with a daily special: It Romanista 198 , which number a lot the 10 September 2004 . This title has a circulation of 10,000 copies.
Audiovisual media
Main article: Football and television .
The radio covers football from the 1920s 199 . In Italy , the first broadcast of a match on the radio takes place on October 6 1924 200 . In Belgium , Adrien ensures Milecamp 1927 commentary broadcast the first game in the kingdom ( Belgium – England ‘s May 11 ) 201 . Georges Briquet , “the king of radio reporters 202 “who began his career in 1931 , is the great voice of French sports and football until 1950 . It was he who created the concept of Sunday afternoon “Sports and music” just after the Second World War 203 . The arrival of television changes the game, but does not condemn the radio that adapts and sets up multiplex 204 and emission of debates about the news of the game
Cameraman during the 2006 World Cup
On 16 September 1937 , the BBC broadcasts a training match between Arsenal and reserve 205 . Arsenal is chosen because of its proximity to the television studios of Alexandra Palace . Aside from German attempts on the occasion of the Olympics in the summer of 1936 and then the match Germany – Italy on 15 November 1936 , this is a first.
The relationship between football and television remain long conflict. Matt Busby , coach of Manchester United , claims and in 1957 for his players the same consideration What movie stars: “Footballers should be paid on their value. No compensation, no TV 206 ” . This position is adopted in England and France, and despite some attempts broadcasts and serious crises, football stadiums are generally inaccessible to the television cameras. This is still only clubs, which eventually won this battle with the TV during the year one thousand nine hundred and eighty ( 1983 in England and 1984 in France ) when broadcasters are willing to abandon the policy of compensation and agree to pay the “performance football” to a fair price. The national teams are not concerned in this debate because the games are usually broadcast in the early 1950s . The World Cup 1954 is the first edition covered by television 207 .
Now paying dearly for the rights to broadcast the meetings, some broadcasters are becoming demanding in terms of timing for spreading league rounds to allow the release of several meetings. But football is also a major competition. Chains that have these rights have emerged as leaders: Sky in the UK, TF1 and Canal + in France.
Distribution of a football game live and in HD in a movie theater in England.
Prices of high duties, but the viewing figures reach record highs. Thus, the eleven best audiences for French television since 1989 (creation of Médiamat ), there are ten games of football and rugby union 208 . Similarly, at international level, the 2006 World Cup is broadcast by 376 television stations around the world for an audience of 26.29 billion viewers for 52 games, an average audience per game in 506 million viewers 209 .
Football spectators gathered outside a bar in Brussels
The advent of television has not only financial consequences. Dissemination meetings creates problems with the game itself and its perception by the media and the public, in particular pointing errors Arbitration 210 . This phenomenon is not new. From the year 1950 , already some games triggered waves of protest important. On 2 March 1960 , the single channel broadcasts the French leg of the European Champion Clubs’ Cup : Real Madrid – OGC Nice , including arbitration doubtful advantage to the Spaniards shocked many viewers 211 . Instead of playing a mediating role, the French media are adding fuel to the fire, then as now, placing the referees in complicated situations. And “Mr. Foote, you’re a bastard! What a scandal that arbitration is unbelievable! Never seen such an individual, it should be in jail and not on a football field “launched by Thierry Roland during the match Bulgaria – France in 1976 against the arbiter 212 , the campaigns of indiscriminate marking the first year the xxi th century , French television was particularly illustrated by its lack of fair play, which also includes respect for the referee’s decisions.
Some clubs have their own TV channels. Middlesbrough FC is the first English club to have such a tool. Boro TV runs of 2 001 two hundred thirteen in 2005 214 . Among the other television clubs include OM TV , OL TV , Channel Inter , Milan Channel, Roma Channel, Manchester United TV, Real Madrid TV and Barcelona TV in particular. Other clubs are content to broadcast matches, highlights and interviews via their websites.
Economy of football
Billboards surrounding the Stade Bonal ( Sochaux , France )
Main article: Economy of football .
Football turns into business in the mid- 1880s in the UK 215 . The large income recorded at the counters are used to finance the professional leagues and stadiums. If the jerseys remain long untouched by advertising, the stage is very fast with billboards while the products, programs to match the colors of gadgets clubs, also appear at the end of xix th century in Britain. At the crowds, the first season of the Premier League ( from 1,888 to 1889 ) shows 4,639 spectators per game average of 216 . The 10 000 spectators medium is reached before the end of the xix th century, that of 20 000 before the First World War 217 .
The box office remains the essential element of the budget of the clubs until the 1990s . Fees paid by television since then represent between one third and two thirds of the budgets of the clubs. Advertising is also an important item of income, particularly since the late 1960s . Advertising on the shirts is permitted in France in October 1969 after an abortive attempt in 1968 : the League wanted to impose to all clubs the same partner. The Olympique Nimes and Marseille are the first French professional clubs to display advertising on their jerseys 218 . The UEFA allows advertisements on jerseys in European Cups clubs from 1982 , except for the finals where the ban is lifted in 1995 . The FIFA banned the ads, however on the shirts of the national teams.
Clubs with the most revenue (2006-2007) are the Real Madrid ( Spain ) with 351 million euros, Manchester United ( England ) 315.2, FC Barcelona (Spain) 290.1, Chelsea FC (England) 283 and Arsenal FC (England) 263.9 219 .
The sums involved are significant gaps and some clubs may also reach record levels. The financial health of clubs is a double challenge: to ensure their sustainability and avoid financial doping, that is to say credit to buy a team. France has introduced in the mid- 1990s the DNCG whose mission is to monitor the financial accounts of professional clubs with the power to relegate them to ban a club to promote or limit their payroll. Long in chronic deficit, clubs Ligue 1 accounts have beneficiaries since 2006 : over 42 million euros in net profit in 2006-2007 of the 20 clubs L1 220 . Often mentioned, a European DNCG yet to be established to avoid certain abuses 221 . The introduction of clubs on the stock market is a recent development affecting only a few clubs. At the end of the season 2006 – 2007 , 11 English clubs, five Danes, four Turks, four Italians, three Portuguese, two French, one Scottish, one Dutch, one Swedish and one German were publicly listed 222 .
Emirates Stadium in London , on behalf of the airline Emirates
Clubs or community stadium owners can not cope with some work praise the name of the stadium to a sponsor. This form of advertising already exists in France before World War I with the Morning Stadium , the Olympic Stadium of Colombes , which is named after the Paris daily newspaper Le Matin from 1907 to 1919 223 . In 1996 , this practice is reintroduced by the Americans, and it affects Europe from 1997 with the new stadium of Bolton Wanderers named Reebok Stadium . The FIFA admits bad this innovation, and to mark the 2006 World Cup in Germany , the names of the stages did not include any names officially sponsor while their construction was partly financed by this route 224 . In France, naming the first contract was signed in 2008 at Le Mans for its stadium, named MMArena , which opened Saturday, January 29, 2010 by a 3-0 win at Le Mans blu cig against AC Ajaccio.
Organizing meetings also causes all sorts of economic benefits not directly related to the club or even football. Auxerre , French average small town, owes much of its reputation in France and abroad, his team Football 225 . The AJ Auxerre is a true ambassador of the city, which enjoys more direct impact on hotels and activities increased to coffee shops. Similarly, the organization of a World Cup or Euro, enables a nation (or a pair as is the case in Switzerland – Austria for Euro 2008 ) to conduct an effective campaign and equip themselves in stages but also in transportation or in hotels. The consequences of the rise in GNP are discussed, but the World Tourism Organization highlights the World Cup to explain the significant increase in tourism International Germany in 2006 (9.6%) 226 .
Football and politics
Local Issues
According to Alfred Wahl : “At the most modest, that of the village, the sports association is a field of confrontation between notable because it can be a stepping stone to power 227 ” . The football game between the Dynamo of Peppone at La Gaillarde Don Camillo in the film The Little World of Don Camillo ( 1951 ) illustrates the tone of humor that situation. The existence of several rival clubs in the same city usually belongs to the past, especially in smaller towns. Some large cities have managed to keep several clubs at the same level, except in France , where authorities have ensured, since the year 1930 , to apply the rule, “a corporate reputation management club, a city”.
The latest examples of French clubs located at the same level in the same city are those of Vannes ( Vannes OC is the result of merging the two clubs in the city’s historic 1998 ) and La Roche-sur-Yon (ditto for La Roche VF in 1989 ). In these cases, it is a fusion of club patronage from a Catholic and a club posing as secular. This opposition was born in France in the early xx th century masked the classical oppositions left / right found in the rest of continental Europe. In France, when the “Reds” battled “whites”, it was a match between secularists and Catholics elsewhere, as in the example of Don Camillo, it was more a question of an opposition left / right, even though the church was mostly behind the clubs ‘whites’. The only professional club from a French Catholic patronage is the AJ Auxerre . Local rival, the secular Stadium Auxerre still exists but is changing in Burgundy championship .
The presence of only one club in a city other problems, such as the municipalization of the club, with all possible deviations at this level. Municipalities usually have sports facilities and have long had power of life and death over clubs in granting or withholding of subsidies. The rise of fees paid by television professionals allows clubs to break free a little, but the problem remains at the amateur level.
Some clubs are emblematic of claims. The FC Barcelona or Athletic Bilbao are as powerful symbols of Catalan regionalism 228 and Basque. Even today, one must be born in the Basque Country “historical” or have been trained at the club to play at Athletic Bilbao.
Religious claims have their rightful place in football. In Northern Ireland , the main club Belfast , Linfield FC players is composed exclusively of Protestants. For years, his game against Cliftonville FC , club located in the Catholic area, were played for security reasons on neutral ground in Windsor Park 229 . Following the increasing no no hair removal incidents at home and outside the Catholic Club of Derry City Football Club is now playing in the championship of Ireland . The situation is also tense in Glasgow between the Protestants of Glasgow Rangers and Catholics of Celtic FC .
Conversely, football can serve as an element of symbolic gathering as was the case in France after the victory in World Cup 1998 or Iraq in 2007 after winning the Asian Cup of Nations . “Iraqis live for football, and it is their secret to cope with difficulties, ” said Hussein Saeed , former player of the iconic 1980′s and president of the Iraqi federation 230 .
Global Issues
Football and nationalism
Football has often served as a vehicle for nationalist sentiments. Many totalitarian or authoritarian regimes have used it as a propaganda tool. Benito Mussolini has promoted the Italian team to the rank of “soldiers of the national cause 229 “. Yet Italian fascists are clearly hostile to football, too English, they came to power. They try to replace it and play local Volata ; unsuccessful 231 . Soviet leaders, like Mussolini, are not really keen on football, but exploit the vein from the year 1950 after putting his hand over the army , the Police and the KGB in major clubs in the capital from the year 1920 – one thousand nine hundred and thirty 232 .
In the former Yugoslavia, football clubs have also become symbols of identity strong. The structuring of ultras groups from the 1950s supports this evolution 233 and the mutation in para-military assets (such as Tigers of Arkan , including ultras of Red Star Belgrade at the base) during the Civil War years 1990 234 .
Football and diplomacy
Football has sometimes led to tensions between states with poor diplomatic relations.
In 1969 , a football game marks the kickoff of a war that remains as the War of football or war Hundred Hours . In play-off to enter the final phase of World Cup 1970 , the Salvador is required 3-2 to Honduras . In the wake of this victory, El Salvador invaded Honduras to settle an old border dispute. This brief war killed more than 2,000 dead and does not solve the problem between neighbors 235 .
Border incidents are also reported after the final World Cup 1930 between Uruguay and Argentina , while 320 deaths were recorded during riots after the match Peru -Argentina on May 23 1964 236 .
Football is used as a propaganda weapon by the FLN during the war in Algeria . Between April 1958 and March 1962 , the NLF Football Team is a powerful ambassador for the Algerian cause, despite the ban by FIFA to face this training 237 .
Football can also mediate diplomatic as was the case in 1998 during the World Cup in France at the Group F match between the team of the United States to that of Iran 238 – match won 2-1 by Iran – or in 2002 when the World Cup is held jointly by South Korea and Japan . Not wanting to decide between these two historically rival nations, the FIFA has decided, against all logic sport, to entrust the organization of this World Cup to promote their reconciliation 239 .
In 2008-2009, Armenia and Turkey have followed their games selection for the 2010 World Cup a diplomatic rapprochement. This “football diplomacy” led four days before the return leg in October 2009 signed a historic agreement between the two countries 240 .
Human rights
Encouraging dialogue among peoples, we can consider that sport and football in particular, promotes change in attitudes and progression of human rights . We attribute to football a positive influence on the gender balance in the fight against racism and intolerance, or to freedom of expression.
The dates for selection of the first black players in European national team are significant: in 1881 in Scotland (isolated), 1,931 in France and the country In addition, reactions to some of these materials are difficult for many players. Viv Anderson , selected in 1978 to wear the shirt of the England team , not only receives death threats, but also must endure throughout of his career down racist chants from the stands. The latter, as “Everton are white”, are common in English stadiums until the late 1980s 242 . The situation is clearly more peaceful for France Raoul Diagne and other Larbi Ben Barek in the year 1930 .
Under Communist rule, the football stadium remains one of the few areas where the dispute can be expressed against the regime. Indeed, to declare support for any particular club then major political significance while the songs the fans against the club led by the Communist Party and its various politico-military-industrial were many cries of opposition to the regime. Some players refuse to even play in these clubs. Eduard Streltsov , the “Russian Pele”, refuses to leave the popular Torpedo Moscow to CSKA Moscow or Dynamo . He then made seven years of detention in the Gulag . After graduating, he won the championship of USSR in 1965 with the Torpedo-shaped snub regime 243 .
Objections to football
Football arouses violent opposition. At the time of the soule , many clerics threaten those who practice the discipline of excommunication 244 . As already mentioned, good English society has never really accepted this discipline too popular. Football is also attacked at its principles of play and has long called “lame sport ‘in France by its opponents 245 . Many countries refuse to recognize this discipline in its infancy, preferring the rugby and cycling (France) or gymnastics ( Germany ). From 1905 , however, football has more clubs in France and licensed as rugby, defended by the elite. The USFSA multiplies the oppressions against the football program and in 1911 the international football match France – England as a curtain raiser to a game of rugby league in France 246 . In the Sports Almanac in 1901 , Frantz Reichel , emblematic of the USFSA, writes: “The French will more readily degenerated to the Association within twenty years, only the Rugby triumph. ” 247 after noting that “the English race is the beginning of his dégénérécence (…) I will for now only to show that the taste dégénérécence leading athletes and spectators at the soccer association. ” 248 . Reichel Association notes that the “triumph” 249 on Rugby now, but he devotes little space in his notes on “Football”, in fact, almost entirely devoted to the Rugby 250 .
The attack against the most common football is the professionalisation. This criticism emerged from 1885 and the adoption of professionalism in England . The reluctance is especially important France , even today, and in Germany until the year 1960 . For the record, cycling , professionally for the year 1880 , has never suffered such attacks in France. The FFF , itself, is not very comfortable with this situation, and refuses to recognize the existence of semi-professionalism. She prefers to name his national championships and semi-professionals (the National at CFA2 ) of “amateurs”.
Even today, many authors consider that “football is a disease 251 . ” Authors such as sociologist Jean-Marie Brohm and architect-philosopher Marc Perelman 252 perpetuate this school with books with evocative titles: Football, an emotional plague: Planet of the Apes, party animals ( 1998 ), Intellectuals and football. Rise and fall all the evils of thought ( 2000 ) or football, an emotional plague: The barbarity of stages ( 2006 ) 253 .
Derivatives sports football
The war codes
Action of Australian football , like all other “football”, this version allows the use of hands and veneers.
The Football Association , English Football Association founded in London in 1863 , takes over the generic football. It comprises, indeed, in the clubs following his very different rules, Blackheath RC , in particular, which advocates the use of hands and the authorization of the veneer. The unification of the rules conducted by the FA, which marks the period from 1863 to 1870 square Blackheath in an isolated position. Then left the London club from the FA and create in 1871 the Football Rugby Union . The name of this federation is clear: according to Football Federation rules say rugby. Thus, in 1871, two forms of football were codified and have bodies. Both sports swarm around the world and give rise to variants of American , Australian , Gaelic or Canadian . Thus began a debate on the names to these different sports.
These discussions relate primarily English speakers, which use two terms to name the game: football and soccer. Soccer is officially in use in only three countries: USA , Canada and Samoa , the only three English-speaking federations who take the term of soccer and not of soccer in their behalf. This car insurance quotes slang term for the other English-speaking, however, sometimes used, especially in the press. It is very common and employment in South Africa and more rare in the UK . Please note the United States, the term soccer is gradually replacing that of association football in the name of the national federation. In 1913 , when it was founded in 1945 , the American federation is called United States Football Association , and until 1974 it bears the name of United States Soccer Football Association . She adopted the name United States Soccer Federation .
These debates, which should not touch the French as confirmed by the dictionary in four languages of the FIFA 254 , which gives football as sole official name of the game in French 255 , are in order because of the adoption of the term soccer by Canadian francophones.
Names of these problems are not confined to countries giving rise to local football. Thus, in France , the panic of paris, the professionalism and the rise of powers clubs provoke a boycott of this discipline by the USFSA . For the latter, the only soccer is that it recognizes the variant of rugby since the British authorities in this discipline had reached prohibit the adoption of professionalism. Also, the term Football refers more to rugby in France until the early xx th century 256 . For football, used since 1894 , and the belated recognition of this discipline by the USFSA, the terms “Football Association” or simply “Association”. It plays well to “Assoce” in France in the Belle Epoque . Found in some provincial newspapers the “Association” until the year 1920 . On the federal side, the French Federation adopted the name of French football association was founded in 1919 following the collapse of the structure of the USFSA sports. In the football environment, however, the term football is used only to name the game The magazine Football , created in 1929 , then that becomes the FFFA FFF to release only follow this trend. Rugby has, indeed, broke out in two different sports, to XV or XIII , while other variations are seen as exotic in Europe and in Francophone countries, Canada excepted. They are named according to their origin: American football , Australian football , Gaelic football and Canadian football .
The French, as free green smoke coupon is generally the case in sports 257 , has preserved the original term. This is not the case in other languages where terms have been forged with local sounding, the Fussball German to Fútbol Spanish via Voetbal Dutch or Futebol Portuguese. In Italy , we adopt in 1909 the term of calcio in reference to the old game of Florentine calcio 258 .
7- Spurs v Pires (01/02)
Song: Right Here Right Now by Fatboy Slim
A tribute to the Arsenal legend, Thierry Henry.